Echoes of Al-Quds

Early humans known as upright man, lived in Palestine and survived by hunting animals and collecting wild plants, as shown by archeological evidence. They developed new ways to hunt, improved their stone tolls trough the years. Moreover, they left traces of their presence in the Negev Desert, Al-Amira, Irc Al-Ahmar, Al-Wad, and Kubarah.

Key Event:
1700 BCE - 8000 BCE: Shifting from Gathering to Production
Early humans began to collect wheat and barley seeds after they settled near water plus they slowly shifted to farming. The appearance of pottery marks the point at which they stayed in one place for good.
8000 BCE - 4000 BCE: Existance of Agricultural Communities
Communities began to depend on fishing and cereal farming, even though they had not tamed animals. Trade links formed which were Palestine sent goods from the Dead Sea, including salt and tar. Besides, Jericho received obsidian that came from Turkey.
4000 BCE - 2000 BCE: The Closing of the Fourth Millennium Before Christianity
Daily life changed when people learned to shape metal, raise more food and live in larger numbers. Temples that rose in the towns plus tombs that workers cut into rock showed that society and its customs were taking clearer form.

Religious traditions state that the Semites, who trace their line back to Shem, son of the Prophet Noah (PBUH), were among the first to live in Palestine. Well before the Prophet Moses (PBUH) and his followers arrived, historical plus archaelogical records show that early Arab tribes left the Arabian Peninsula when severe droughts struck and settled in the fertile lands later called Canaan.

One of the first civilizations to prosper in Palestine was the Canaanites. They moved from the Arabian Peninsula around the middle of the third millennium BCE. Ancient cities that still show signs of their presence include Jericho, Gaza, Ashkelon, Acco, Jaffa, and Bisan. Literature and the arts mattered greatly to the Canaanites plus formed a fixed part of their religious ceremonies. When Hebrew groups adopted Canaanite building styles and social habits, the two people grew so alike that outsiders found it hard to separate them. Until Aramaic appeared and followed by Arabic, Canaanite remained as the main language, even though the land held many ethnic groups.

Key Event:
2000 BCE - 1200 BCE
Palestine built strong trade and political ties with Egypt, Syria, and Anatolia. In the time of the 18th and 19th dynasties, Egypt extended its sway by sending armies deeper into the region and introducing fast turning wheels that sped up the making of pottery. The exchanges are highlighted in documents such as the Battle of Megiddo.
1200 BCE - 550 BCE: Era of Kingdoms (Iron Age
Canaanite building styles and religious practices shaped the expansion of Philistine harbour towns in a major way. Scholars still dispute whether certain objects such as the collared rim jar belong to older local cultures or to the first Israelites.

The Persian Empire absorbed Palestine under Cyrus, Cambyses, and Darius I and placed it in the province called Abar-Nahara meaning "Across the River". The same province covered Syria, Phoenicia or Cyprus. Persian government reordered the region plus raised its status as a key land bridge between continents. The land changed after Alexander the Great led his armies trough it. In 332 BCE, he seized the Levantine coast after he won at Granicus and Issus. When he died, his empire split into two kingdoms which were the Seleucid realm in Syria and the Ptolemaic realm in Egypt. Both realms battled for rule over Palestine. After the Maccabean protested against Seleucid rule in 175 BCE, the Hasmonean dynasty immediately appeared. However, the Roman took over Jerusalem in 63 BCE and Palestine was became part of the Roman Empire.

The Roman involved after the Seleucids were attacked and weakened by the internal conflicts. After Pompey's succesful attempt of taking the Jerusalem, Palestine was became one of the part to the Roman province in Syria. Tiberias was one of the cities that were created by rulers like Herod the Great in 37 BCE until 4 BCE that ruled under Rome.

Key Event:
632 CE - 638 CE: The Islamic Conquest of Bilad Al-Sham
The muslim soldiers achieved important victories such as the Battle of Ajnadayn after they made a move into the northern Bilad Al-Sham under Abu Bakr As-Siddiq. Then, they successfully defeated the Byzantines in the Battle of Yarmouk during the reign of Caliph Umar ibn Al-Khattab. After Umar visited the Jerusalem personally as requested by the local leaders, the city peacefully opened and welcomed them.
628 CE - 661 CE: Palestine Under the Rightly-Guided Caliphs
The Islamic empire have turned the Palestine became a stable province. Amr ibn Al-'As and Mu'awiyah ibn Abi Sufyan were among the governors that ruled the area and secured its position within the growing empire.
661 CE - 750 CE: The Umayyad Dynasty
Mu'awiyah who introduced the Umayyad era had made the province became peaceful and wealthy. The dynasty fell after getting struck by internal conflict but the administrative and acrhitectural improvements were made especially under the reigns of Abdul Malik ibn Marwan and Hisham ibn Abdul Malik.
750 CE - 878 CE: The Abbasid Caliphate
After Marwan II passed away, the Abbasids took the power. As they conquered the Palestine, their cruelty and brutal rules towards the Umayyad have brought numerous protests.
878 CE - 905 CE: The Tulunid State
Ahmad ibn Tulun spread his influence from Egypt to Bilad Al-Sham to strengthen defenses against the Byzantine threats.
935 CE - 969 CE: The Ikhshidid Rule
Abu Bakr ibn Tughj who created the Ikhshidid state ruled the Egypt and Syria. His burial in Jerusalem emphasizes the importance of the city.
969 CE - 1070 CE: The Fatimid Era
The Fatimids spread the Shi'a over the Egypt and Palestine. Their rule was defined by the religious conflicts, political issues, and several attempts of various groups to take their power.
1070 CE - 1090 CE: The Seljuk Period
Turkic Seljuks immediately blended with the local as soon as they arrived in Bilad Al-Sham. Their arrival have brought the main military power in the area and it protected the area from the attackers like Mongols and Europeans while forming the groundwork for the next Crusades.

The number of military operations by European powers to control Jerusalem were triggered by Pope Urban II at Clermont in 1095. Thousands of people traveled to the East for the sake of material and spiritual benefits.

Key Event:
1096 CE - 1099 CE: The First Crusade
The Seljuks defeated Peter the Hermit who led the first wave of Crusades poorly. Later, the French's army succesfully took over the Palestine throughout Asia Minor. They held power over Jerusalem after a bloody siege in July 15, 1099. They also killed its Jewish and Muslim residents. The Crusader formed the Latin Kingdom in Jerusalem and spread their power over the Mediterranean coast after controlling the Fatimids at Ascalon.
1100 CE - 1146 CE: Islamic Resistance Builds Between the Crusades
Despite the Crusader's expansion, the internal conflicts with Byzantium have weakened their positions. The muslim world began to work together against the Crusaders in cities such as Mosuk and Aleppo for their future victories under the commanders like Imad Al-Din Zengi, Nur Al-Din, and Salahuddin Al-Ayyubi.
1146 CE- 1149 CE: The Second Crusade
After Edessa fell in 1144, the second crusade began. European leaders move toward east including Emperor Conrad III of Germany and King Louis VII of France to regain their lost land. However, they faced serious muslim backlash, internal conflict, and the lack of preparation. Then, the Crusaders turned their attention to Damascus since they were failing to conquer the Edessa. However, the Damascus genuinely opposing what they were doing. The Second Crusade finally end after their failure of attacking in 1148. The muslim unity was formed after this defeat. Nur Al-Din Zengi who was Zengi's son carried on the fight after his father passed away. He had set the groundwork for the next rulers. The famous ruler among them was Salah Al-Din Al-Ayyubi (Saladin) who would reclaim Jerusalem and oppose Crusader control.
1189 CE - 1192 CE: The Third Crusade
There are some of Europe's most powerful rulers such as Frederick Barbarossa of Germany, Philip II of France, and Richard the Lionheart of England were lauching the third crusade after the fall of Jerusalem that shocked them. The Crusader have arrived in Palestine and besieged Acre despite internal conflict in 1189. The conflict grew more instense as Europe sent more soldiers despite his attempt to counter-besiege them. As a result, the Acre fell in 1991 after a long and draining battle. There was no victory for both sides but they kept fighting over it. Saladin and Richard agreed to three-year truce in 1192. The Crusaders controlled a coastal kingdom centered in Acre meanwhile muslims controlled the Jerusalem. It allowed Christian pilgrims to visit the holy sites. Not long after that, Saladin passed away on 3 March 1193 after he returned to Damascus. The conflict with Crusaders continued until the rise of the Mamluks.

After the fall of the Ayyubids, the Mamluks' elite slaves who were known for their military stregth came to power. The Crusaders conquered Damietta and moved toward Cairo during the Seventh Crusade when Sultan Al-Salih Ayyub passed away. This simbolized the beginning of their rule. Then, the Mamluks took over, destroyed the Crusaders, and built their own empire. Baybars who was the one of greatest rulers became the initiator of Mamluk rule after murdering Sultan Qutuz. But before that, Qutuz and Baybars were working together to deal with a much bigger danger which is the Mongols. The Mongols have took over Damascus in 1260 and destroyed Baghdad in 1258. The two armies have participated in a well known battle that called Ain Jalut. The Mamluks' victory have stopped the Mongols' movement into the area. After that, Baybars focused on destroying any remaining Crusader castles. The Crusader presence in the Holy Land was completely vanished and ending in 1291.

There were two new empires that appeared as Mamluk power weakened. It were the Ottoman Empire in Anatolia and the Safavid empire in Persia. This had caused many arguments to arise. Sultan Selim I who led the Ottomans have successfully deafeated the Safavids at Chaldiran in 1514 by using superior weapons. Two years later in 1516, Selim immediately conquered Egypt after ending the Mamluks in Marj Dabiq that close to Aleppo. The Mamluk political power had been destroyed. Syria quickly surrendered because the fear of Ottoman stregth and disapproval toward Mamluk rule. Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent (1520 - 1566) who was Selim's son had took over the Abbasid's religious rule, spread over three continents, and made Istanbul the center of the Islamic world. This caused the Ottoman Empire reached its highest point. However, the balance of world power slowly changed toward the west as a result of the European Renaissance.

The appearance of the Zionist movement among European Jews in the late 19th century set the basis for the battle in Palestine. Zionism which was came from the name of Mount Zion near Jerusalem, they argued for the creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. The idea of a Jewish "nationality" was basically made up as the Jews were scattered around the world at the time. They also lacked a native language, political organization, and territory. The Balfour Declaration of 1917 had promised the Jews a national home in Palestine. It was the result of the movement's growth in Europe throughout the political and colonial conditions. Palestine received British troops as defender during World War I. The Zionist Committee's arrival exposed their actual intentions as Britain let them to begin building settlements and set the groundwork for Jewish national homeland even though Palestinian Arabs' population was more than 90%. This gave the chance for a long period of conflict, demonstrations, and opposition.

Key Event:
1925 CE - 1929 CE: Balfour's Visit & The Al-Buraq Revolution
The Hebrew University was built by Arthur Balfour when he went to Jerusalem in 1925. The university was built on a land that was taken from the Palestinians. He had to leave after the Palestinians held massive protests. The conflicts increased as the Jewish immigration escalated. When Jews tried to claim control of the Western Wall in 1928, it was resulted in the Al-Buraq incident which caused violent conflicts in Hebron, Nablus, Beisan, and Safad. The aftermath of it had caused the British to use serious repression. The British have been ruining the communities such as Deir Yassin and Lifta and killing Palestinians excessively.
1930 CE - 1935 CE: Massive Immigration & Demographic Shift
Jewish immigration increased excessivelyfrom 104,750 in 1930 to 284,645 in 1936. They entered the Palestine illegally. The Jews had grew up to one-fourth of the population which effectively triggered the changes of demographic balance and increased the Palestinian anxiety about losing their homeland.
1931 CE - 1932 CE: Islamic & Arab Political Mobilization
The Islamic conference gathered representatives from 22 Islamic countries in Jerusalem (December 1931) to oppose the Zionist and British actions. They also emphasized the significances of Al-Aqsa Mosque. They demanded to oppose the Zionism, boycott the Jewish goods, and establish an Islamic university. The Britain chose General Arthur Wauchope to encourage Jewish settlement while resisting Arab political demands. The cooperation between Zionists and Britain was exposed by the Independence Party in 1932. The party opposed the Balfour Declaration and British policies.
1932 CE - 1935 CE: Youth Mobilization & Final Immigration Waves
In Jaffa, the youth of Palestinians worked together to support the national movement. The Jewish immigration mostly from Europe increased slowly from 9,552 in 1932 to 61,854 in 1935. Palestinian fears of losing the ownership over their homeland were increased by this rapid growth and land acquisition for future widespread opposition.

Over 700,000 Palestinians were forced to move out and over 400 towns were ruined during the Nakba ("disaster") of 1948 which led to the current Israeli state. The Nakba began earlier with policies such as the Balfour Declaration (1917) and still continue until now through continuous displacement in Jerusalem, settlement growth, takings of land, and the blockade of Gaza. Many Palestinians believe that the Nakba will never end. There are millions of them still live in refugee camps in Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria while the others are refused to return their homeland. The human reality behind this disaster is revealed through personal stories from 1948. There are witnesses such as Muhammad Hallaj, Ghada Karmi, Um Jabr Wishah, and Elias Srouji that experienced Israeli militias attacked on Palestinian towns. They described the fear, chaos, and violence of what Israeli had done. The families moved from town to town under the bombardment and left with only what they could take. The number of refugees were increased as the ancient cities like Jaffa, Acre, Lydda, Haifa, and Tiberias ruined quickly. The frequent murders or forced removals also caused the inscreasement of the refugees. Almost 80,000 Palestinians had to flee the areas such as Lydda in the largest single expulsion of the conflict. The Western media oftenly support the Israeli narratives that blamed Palestinians for their own displacement. This caused Palestinians struggled for decades to gain the "permission to narrate" as Edward Said put it. This started to change when Israeli scholars knowns as the New Historians gained access to unpublish the documents in 1980s. This had confirmed of what Palestinians had long stated which was the expulsions were intentional, meticulous, and planned. The researchers such as Ilan Pappe revealed that the strategic plan as known as Plan Dalet (Plan D) was employed by Zionist militias to remove Palestinian populations and take as much land as possible for the new state. Walid Khalidi who is a Palestian historian had previously asked the official Israeli narratives in important publications such as "Plan Dalet", "Why Did the Palestinians Leave", and "The Fall of Haifa". His meticulous archival work showed that Palestinians were forced to move out by military operations, murders, and intimidation techniques rather than just "leaving". Simha Flapan and other scholars have proved on how the Israeli officials enabled expulsion in secret while pretending opposition to it in public. Meanwhile, Avi Shlaim exposed how Britain recklessly abandoned Palestine in 1948. This caused the Palestinians being helpless against the Zionist forces. Every aspect of current Palestinian existence is shaped by the Nakba's legacy. It started from statelessness and refugehood to continuous wars against occupation, settlement growth, and historical cleansing. Understanding the Nakba is crucial to learn the past, present, and ongoing struggle of the Palestinian people.